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philosophical concepts such as myself, and closely examining my
‘Essence’ and ‘Cause and Effect’ are nature, I will endeavor to obtain by
some examples of knowledge by degrees a more intimate and familiar
presence of a human being knowledge of myself. I am a thinking
concerning his soul and its effects. (conscious) thing, that is, a being who
In this regard, the late Ṭabāṭabāʾī doubts, affirms, denies, knows a few
said, “The connection between powers objects, and is ignorant of many—who
and actions, along with their loves, hates, wills, refuses, who
association with the soul, is understood imagines likewise, and perceives; for, as
through both knowledge by presence I before remarked, although the things
and knowledge by acquisition” which I perceive or imagine are perhaps
(Ṭabāṭabāʾī, 2018, p. 67). nothing at all apart from me and in
Based on the aforementioned points, themselves, I am nevertheless assured
it is evident that both knowledge by that those modes of consciousness which
presence and intuitive knowledge hold I call perceptions and imaginations, in as
significant and crucial importance in far only as they are modes of
the epistemological and ontological consciousness, exist in me. And in the
framework of ʿAllāma Ṭabāṭabāʾī. little I have said I think I have summed
Descartes has placed significant up all that I really know, or at least all
emphasis on the concept of knowledge that up to this time I was aware I knew”
by presence, as well as on intuitive (Descartes, 1982, pp. 61-62).
knowledge. He considers knowledge by Also, in Descartes' view, ‘intuition’ as
presence to be the foundational element a foundation and basis for philosophical
of his philosophical framework. To and true thinking is a rational insight that,
circumvent doubt and solidify his just like sensory perception, is directly
philosophical ideas, he requires a robust perceived and causes inner certainty. This
and unassailable basis, which he finds intuition is unquestionable and certain
in knowledge by presence. In this (Sanaei, 1997, p. 28).
context, Descartes articulates, “I will
now close my eyes, I will stop my ears, 1.2. Truth and Error in Judgment
I will turn away my senses from their ʿAllāma Ṭabāṭabāʾī addresses the
objects, I will even efface from my concepts of truth and error in judgment as
consciousness all the images of they pertain to a specific level of
corporeal things; or at least, because perception. He has delineated four distinct
this can hardly be accomplished, I will stages of perception, asserting that the
consider them as empty and false; and matters of truth and error are associated
thus, holding converse only with with the fourth stage. According to the
